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Between and , Joliot-Curie ‘s team applied for a patent family covering different use cases of atomic energy, one case III, in patent FR , – Perfectionnements aux charges explosives , meaning Improvements in Explosive Charges being the first official document explicitly mentioning a nuclear explosion as a purpose, including for war.
Uranium appears in nature primarily in two isotopes: uranium and uranium When the nucleus of uranium absorbs a neutron, it undergoes nuclear fission, releasing energy and, on average, 2.
Because uranium releases more neutrons than it absorbs, it can support a chain reaction and so is described as fissile.
Uranium, on the other hand, is not fissile as it does not normally undergo fission when it absorbs a neutron. By the start of the war in September , many scientists likely to be persecuted by the Nazis had already escaped.
Physicists on both sides were well aware of the possibility of utilizing nuclear fission as a weapon, but no one was quite sure how it could be engineered. In August , concerned that Germany might have its own project to develop fission-based weapons, Albert Einstein signed a letter to U.
President Franklin D. Roosevelt warning him of the threat. It was not until the U. Organized research first began in Britain and Canada as part of the Tube Alloys project: the world’s first nuclear weapons project.
The Maud Committee was set up following the work of Frisch and Rudolf Peierls who calculated uranium’s critical mass and found it to be much smaller than previously thought which meant that a deliverable bomb should be possible. The blast from such an explosion would destroy life in a wide area.
The size of this area is difficult to estimate, but it will probably cover the centre of a big city. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Explosive device that derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions. For other uses, see Atom bomb disambiguation and A-bomb disambiguation. This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
Main article: Nuclear weapon design. Main article: Thermonuclear weapon. Main articles: Boosted fission weapon , Neutron bomb , Radiological warfare , Induced gamma emission , and Antimatter weapon. See also: Nuclear weapons delivery , Nuclear triad , Strategic bomber , Intercontinental ballistic missile , and Submarine-launched ballistic missile. Main articles: Nuclear strategy and Deterrence theory. See also: Anti-nuclear movement. Did not vote. Main article: Nuclear disarmament.
For statistics on possession and deployment, see List of states with nuclear weapons. See also: Nuclear weapons debate and History of the anti-nuclear movement. Main article: Nuclear ethics.
Main articles: Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents and List of military nuclear accidents. See also: List of nuclear close calls. Main article: Nuclear fallout. See also: Downwinders. Main article: Effects of nuclear explosions. Main article: Effects of nuclear explosions on human health. Main article: Peaceful nuclear explosion. Main article: History of nuclear weapons. Popular Mechanics. Hearst Magazines. October Nuclear Weapons”.
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United States nuclear devices. Mark 90 Mk Mk B W64 W65 W66 W W W French nuclear armament. Strategic nuclear weapon systems of the United Kingdom.
Blue Steel Skybolt cancelled. Resolution -class submarine. Vanguard -class submarine —present Dreadnought -class submarine replacement. Trident II D5. Blue Water missile Blue Peacock nuclear landmine. Nuclear technology. Fast-neutron Neutron capture therapy of cancer Targeted alpha-particle Proton-beam Tomotherapy Brachytherapy Radiation therapy Radiosurgery Radiopharmacology.
Food Irradiation Electron beam processing. Nuclear reactors. Graphite by coolant. None fast-neutron. While Hanna-Barbera and Disney began implementing digital inking and painting, it took the rest of the industry longer to adapt. Many filmmakers and studios did not want to shift to the digital ink-and-paint process because they felt that the digitally colored animation would look too synthetic and would lose the aesthetic appeal of the non-computerized cel for their projects.
Many animated television series were still animated in other countries by using the traditionally inked-and-painted cel process as late as , though most of them switched over to the digital process at some point during their run. The last major feature film to use traditional ink and paint was Satoshi Kon ‘s Millennium Actress ; the last major animation productions in the west to use the traditional process were Nickelodeon ‘s SpongeBob SquarePants , both Fox ‘s The Simpsons and King of the Hill and both Cartoon Network ‘s The Powerpuff Girls and Ed, Edd n Eddy , which all switched to digital paint between to , [13] while the last major animated production overall to abandon cel animation was the television adaptation of Sazae-san , which remained stalwart with the technique until September 29, , when it switched to fully digital animation on October 6, Prior to this, the series adopted digital animation solely for its opening credits in , but retained the use of traditional cels for the main content of each episode.
The cel animation process was invented by Earl Hurd and John Bray in The cel is an important innovation to traditional animation, as it allows some parts of each frame to be repeated from frame to frame, thus saving labor. A simple example would be a scene with two characters on screen, one of which is talking and the other standing silently. Since the latter character is not moving, it can be displayed in this scene using only one drawing, on one cel, while multiple drawings on multiple cels are used to animate the speaking character.
For a more complex example, consider a sequence in which a person sets a plate upon a table. The table stays still for the entire sequence, so it can be drawn as part of the background. The plate can be drawn along with the character as the character places it on the table. However, after the plate is on the table, the plate no longer moves, although the person continues to move as they draw their arm away from the plate.
In this example, after the person puts the plate down, the plate can then be drawn on a separate cel from them. Further frames feature new cels of the person, but the plate does not have to be redrawn as it is not moving; the same cel of the plate can be used in each remaining frame that it is still upon the table. The cel paints were actually manufactured in shaded versions of each color to compensate for the extra layer of cel added between the image and the camera; in this example, the still plate would be painted slightly brighter to compensate for being moved one layer down.
In TV and other low-budget productions, cels were often “cycled” i. After the film was completed, the cels were either thrown out or, especially in the early days of animation, washed clean and reused for the next film. In some cases, some of the cels were put into the “archive” to be used again and again for future purposes in order to save money.
Some studios saved a portion of the cels and either sold them in studio stores or presented them as gifts to visitors. A cel overlay is a cel with inanimate objects used to give the impression of a foreground when laid on top of a ready frame. A special version of cel overlay is called line overlay , made to complete the background instead of making the foreground, and was invented to deal with the sketchy appearance of xeroxed drawings.
The background was first painted as shapes and figures in flat colors, containing rather few details. Next, a cel with detailed black lines was laid directly over it, each line is drawn to add more information to the underlying shape or figure and give the background the complexity it needed. In this way, the visual style of the background will match that of the xeroxed character cels. As the xerographic process evolved, line overlay was left behind. In very early cartoons made before the use of the cel, such as Gertie the Dinosaur , the entire frame, including the background and all characters and items, were drawn on a single sheet of paper, then photographed.
Everything had to be redrawn for each frame containing movements. This led to a “jittery” appearance; imagine seeing a sequence of drawings of a mountain, each one slightly different from the one preceding it.
The pre-cel animation was later improved by using techniques like the slash and tear system invented by Raoul Barre ; the background and the animated objects were drawn on separate papers.
In lower-budget productions, shortcuts available through the cel technique are used extensively. For example, in a scene in which a person is sitting in a chair and talking, the chair and the body of the person may be the same in every frame; only their head is redrawn, or perhaps even their head stays the same while only their mouth moves.
This is known as limited animation. The end result does not look very lifelike, but is inexpensive to produce, and therefore allows cartoons to be made on small television budgets. Moving characters are often shot “on twos”. One drawing is shown for every two frames of film which usually runs at 24 frames per second , meaning there are only 12 drawings per second.
However, when a character is required to perform a quick movement, it is usually necessary to revert to animating “on ones”, as “twos” are too slow to convey the motion adequately. A blend of the two techniques keeps the eye fooled without unnecessary production costs. Creating animation loops or animation cycles is a labor-saving technique for animating repetitive motions, such as a character walking or a breeze blowing through the trees.
In the case of walking, the character is animated taking a step with its right foot, then a step with its left foot. The loop is created so that, when the sequence repeats, the motion is seamless. In general, they are used only sparingly by productions with moderate or high budgets. In addition, a promotional music video from Cartoon Network ‘s Groovies featuring the Soul Coughing song “Circles” poked fun at animation loops as they are often seen in The Flintstones , in which Fred and Barney along with various Hanna-Barbera characters that aired on Cartoon Network , supposedly walking in a house, wonder why they keep passing the same table and vase over and over again.
The multiplane process is a technique primarily used to give a sense of depth or parallax to two-dimensional animated films. To use this technique in traditional animation, the artwork is painted or placed onto separate layers called planes. These planes, typically constructed of planes of transparent glass or plexiglass, are then aligned and placed with specific distances between each plane. In some devices, the individual planes can be moved toward or away from the camera.
This gives the viewer the impression that they are moving through the separate layers of art as though in a three-dimensional space. Predecessors of this technique and the equipment used to implement it began appearing in the late 19th century.
Painted glass panes were often used in matte shots and glass shots, [24] as seen in the work of Norman Dawn. Its top-down, vertical design allowed for overhead adjusting of individual, stationary planes. One notable exception to this trend was the Setback Camera, developed and used by Fleischer Studios.
This device used miniature three-dimensional models of sets, with animated cels placed at various positions within the set. This placement gave the appearance of objects moving in front of and behind the animated characters, and was often referred to as the Tabletop Method. The spread and development of multiplane animation helped animators tackle problems with motion tracking and scene depth, and reduced production times and costs for animated works.
Using a two-dimensional still of an animated farmhouse at night, Disney demonstrated that zooming in on the scene, using traditional animation techniques of the time, increased the size of the moon. In real-life experience, the moon would not increase in size as a viewer approached a farmhouse.
Multiplane animation solved this problem by separating the moon, farmhouse, and farmland into separate planes, with the moon being farthest away from the camera. To create the zoom effect, the first two planes were moved closer to the camera during filming, while the plane with the moon remained at its original distance. Applied to animation by Ub Iwerks at the Walt Disney studio during the late s, the electrostatic copying technique called xerography allowed the drawings to be copied directly onto the cels, eliminating much of the “inking” portion of the ink-and-paint process.
At first, it resulted in a more sketchy look, but the technique was improved upon over time. Disney animator and engineer Bill Justice had patented a forerunner of the Xerox process in , where drawings made with a special pencil would be transferred to a cel by pressure, and then fixing it.
It is not known if the process was ever used in animation. The xerographic method was first tested by Disney in a few scenes of Sleeping Beauty and was first fully used in the short film Goliath II , while the first feature entirely using this process was One Hundred and One Dalmatians The graphic style of this film was strongly influenced by the process.
Some hand inking was still used together with xerography in this and subsequent films when distinct colored lines were needed. Later, colored toners became available, and several distinct line colors could be used, even simultaneously. For instance, in The Rescuers the characters’ outlines are gray. White and blue toners were used for special effects, such as snow and water. Basically, the process was a modification of a repro-photographic process; the artists’ work was photographed on high-contrast “litho” film, and the image on the resulting negative was then transferred to a cel covered with a layer of light-sensitive dye.
The cel was exposed through the negative. Chemicals were then used to remove the unexposed portion. Small and delicate details were still inked by hand if needed. Spencer received an Academy Award for Technical Achievement for developing this process. Rotoscoping is a method of traditional animation invented by Max Fleischer in , in which animation is “traced” over actual film footage of actors and scenery. Another piece of paper is then placed over the live-action printouts and the action is traced frame by frame using a lightbox.
The end result still looks hand-drawn but the motion will be remarkably lifelike. The films Waking Life and American Pop are full-length rotoscoped films.
In most cases, rotoscoping is mainly used to aid the animation of realistically rendered human beings, as in Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs , Peter Pan , and Sleeping Beauty. A method related to conventional rotoscoping was later invented for the animation of solid inanimate objects, such as cars, boats, or doors. A small live-action model of the required object was built and painted white, while the edges of the model were painted with thin black lines.
The object was then filmed as required for the animated scene by moving the model, the camera, or a combination of both, in real-time or using stop-motion animation.
The film frames were then printed on paper, showing a model made up of the painted black lines. After the artists had added details to the object not present in the live-action photography of the model, it was xeroxed onto cels. The process of transferring 3D objects to cels was greatly improved in the s when computer graphics advanced enough to allow the creation of 3D computer-generated objects that could be manipulated in any way the animators wanted, and then printed as outlines on paper before being copied onto cels using Xerography or the APT process.
This process has more or less been superseded by the use of cel-shading. Related to rotoscoping are the methods of vectorizing live-action footage, in order to achieve a very graphical look, like in Richard Linklater ‘s film A Scanner Darkly. Similar to the computer animation and traditional animation hybrids described above, occasionally a production will combine both live-action and animated footage.
The live-action parts of these productions are usually filmed first, the actors pretending that they are interacting with the animated characters, props, or scenery; animation will then be added into the footage later to make it appear as if it has always been there. Like rotoscoping, this method is rarely used, but when it is, it can be done to terrific effect, immersing the audience in a fantasy world where humans and cartoons co-exist.
Live-action and animation were later combined in features such as Song of the South , The Incredible Mr. The technique has also seen significant use in television commercials, especially for breakfast cereals marketed to children to interest them and boost sales. Besides traditionally animated characters, objects, and backgrounds, many other techniques are used to create special elements such as smoke, lightning and “magic”, and to give the animation, in general, a distinct visual appearance.
Today special effects are mostly done with computers, but earlier they had to be done by hand. To produce these effects, the animators used different techniques, such as drybrush , airbrush , charcoal, grease pencil , backlit animation, diffusing screens, filters , or gels.
For instance, the Nutcracker Suite segment in Fantasia has a fairy sequence where stippled cels are used, creating a soft pastel look. The methods mentioned above describe the techniques of an animation process that originally depended on cels in its final stages, but painted cels are rare today as the computer moves into the animation studio, and the outline drawings are usually scanned into the computer and filled with digital paint instead of being transferred to cels and then colored by hand.
It is now also possible for animators to draw directly into a computer using a graphics tablet such as a Cintiq or a similar device, where the outline drawings are done in a similar manner as they would be on paper. Some of the advantages are the possibility and potential of controlling the size of the drawings while working on them, drawing directly on a multiplane background and eliminating the need for photographing line tests and scanning.
Though traditional animation is now commonly done with computers, it is important to differentiate computer-assisted traditional animation from 3D computer animation , such as Toy Story , Shrek , Jimmy Neutron: Boy Genius , and Ice Age.
However, often traditional animation and 3D computer animation will be used together, as in Don Bluth ‘s Titan A. Most anime and many western animated series still use traditional animation today, such as Ghost in the Shell , Neon Genesis Evangelion , and Cowboy Bebop. DreamWorks executive Jeffrey Katzenberg coined the term “tradigital animation” to describe animated films produced by his studio which incorporated elements of traditional and computer animation equally, such as The Road to El Dorado , Spirit: Stallion of the Cimarron , and Sinbad: Legend of the Seven Seas.
This technique was also used in the animated movie Appleseed , and cel-shaded 3D animation is typically integrated with cel animation in Disney films and in many television shows, such as Fox ‘s Futurama , Family Guy , and American Dad!
In one scene of the Pixar movie Ratatouille , an illustration of Gusteau in his cookbook , speaks to Remy who, in that scene, was lost in the sewers of Paris as a figment of Remy’s imagination; this scene is also considered an example of cel-shading in an animated feature.
More recently, animated shorts such as Paperman , Feast , and The Dam Keeper have used a more distinctive style of cel-shaded 3D animation, capturing a look and feel similar to a ‘moving painting’. Among the most common types of animation rostrum cameras was the Oxberry. Such cameras were always made of black anodized aluminum, and commonly had 2 peg bars, 1 at the top and 1 at the bottom of the lightbox.
The Oxberry Master Series had 4 peg bars, 2 above and 2 below, and sometimes used a “floating peg bar” as well. The height of the column on which the camera was mounted determined the amount of zoom achievable on a piece of artwork.
Such cameras were massive mechanical affairs that might weigh close to a ton and take hours to break down or set up. In the later years of the animation rostrum camera, stepper motors controlled by computers were attached to the various axes of movement of the camera, thus saving many hours of hand cranking by human operators. Gradually, motion control techniques were adopted throughout the industry. Digital ink and paint processes gradually made these traditional animation techniques and equipment obsolete.
Computers and digital video cameras can also be used as tools in traditional cel animation without affecting the film directly, assisting the animators in their work and making the whole process faster and easier.
Doing the layouts on a computer is much more effective than doing it by traditional methods. This can be considered a digital form of pencil testing. The most famous device used for multiplane animation was the multiplane camera. Designed in by William Garity , the multiplane camera used for the film Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs utilized artwork painted on up to seven separate, movable planes, as well as a vertical, top-down camera.
Beginning largely with the use of CAPS , digital multiplane cameras would help streamline the process of adding layers and depth to animated scenes. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Animation technique in which frames are hand-drawn. This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page.
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